AS/NZS 4853:2012
Electrical hazards on metallic pipelines
Sets down the minimum requirements for managing the safety of personnel working in the vicinity of pipelines and equipment installed on pipelines, and specifically addresses the requirements for the control of electrical hazards on transmission and distribution pipelines.
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AS/NZS 4853:2012 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ON METALLIC PIPELINES
PREFACE
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE
1.2 EXCLUSIONS
1.3 RETROSPECTIVE APPLICATION
1.4 REFERENCE DOCUMENT
1.5 DEFINITIONS
1.5.1 Accessible
1.5.2 Admittance (Y)
1.5.3 Anode
1.5.4 Approved
1.5.5 Appurtenance
1.5.6 As low as reasonably practicable (ALARP)
1.5.7 Authorized person
1.5.8 Cathodic protection (CP)
1.5.9 Cathodic protection unit
1.5.10 Clearing time (Primary)
1.5.11 Competent person
1.5.12 Counterpoise
1.5.13 Coupling factor (see Figure 1.5)
1.5.14 Diameter
1.5.15 Drainage bond
1.5.16 Earth (noun)
1.5.17 Earth (verb)
1.5.18 Earth fault current
1.5.19 Earth potential rise (EPR)
1.5.20 Electrode
1.5.21 Electrolyte
1.5.22 Equipotential mats
1.5.23 Exposure zone
1.5.24 Fluid
1.5.25 Hazard
1.5.26 Holiday
1.5.27 Impedance (Z)
1.5.28 Impressed current
1.5.29 Insulating joint
1.5.30 Low frequency induction (LFI)
1.5.31 Licensee
1.5.32 May
1.5.33 Owner
1.5.34 Polarization cell
1.5.35 Prospective earth fault level
1.5.36 Prospective step voltage
1.5.37 Prospective touch voltage
1.5.38 Protection measures (procedural)
1.5.39 Protection measures (physical)
1.5.40 Regulatory authority
1.5.41 Risk
1.5.42 Shall
1.5.43 Shielding factor (refer to Figure 1.5)
1.5.44 Should
1.5.45 Step voltage (effective)
1.5.46 Structure
1.5.47 Test point
1.5.48 Touch voltage (effective)
1.6 SYMBOLS AND UNITS
1.7 ABBREVIATIONS
SECTION 2 SAFETY
2.1 GENERAL
2.2 RISK CONTEXT
2.3 ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
2.4 RISK ASSESSMENT
2.5 EFFECTIVENESS OF RISK TREATMENTS
2.6 CONSTRUCTION SAFETY
SECTION 3 ELECTRICAL HAZARD SOURCES
3.1 GENERAL
3.2 EARTH POTENTIAL RISE (EPR)
3.3 LOW FREQUENCY INDUCTION (LFI)
3.3.1 General
3.3.2 LFI mechanisms
3.4 CAPACITIVE COUPLING
3.5 EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING
3.5.1 The electrical nature of lightning
3.5.2 The electrical properties of coated pipelines
3.5.3 The combination of lightning current with the pipeline
3.6 OTHER HAZARDS
3.6.1 Open-circuited neutrals
3.6.2 D.C. traction systems
3.6.3 A.C. traction systems
3.6.4 Storage and handling of pipe lengths in proximity to powerlines
3.7 INTERACTION BETWEEN PIPELINE PROTECTIVE EARTHING SYSTEMS AND CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS
3.8 PIPELINE CORROSION RESULTING FROM STEADY STATE LFI
3.9 PIPE WALL FUSION
3.10 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
3.11 CONSTANT POTENTIAL CATHODIC PROTECTION UNITS
3.12 PIPELINE EARTHING TO POWERLINE EARTHS
3.13 PLASTIC PIPELINES CONTAINING CONDUCTIVE LIQUIDS
SECTION 4 DESIGN PROCESS (AUSTRALIA ONLY)
4.1 GENERAL
4.2 DESIGN PROCESS
4.3 LEVEL 1 (CONSERVATIVE) COMPLIANCE
4.3.1 Preliminary data gathering
4.3.2 First pass assessment
4.4 LEVEL 2 VOLTAGE LIMIT COMPLIANCE
4.4.1 Identifying zones of interest
4.4.2 Site visit
4.4.3 Data gathering
4.4.4 Impressed voltage calculations
4.4.5 Equipment integrity assessment
4.4.6 Voltage limit compliance
4.5 LEVEL 3 RISK BASED (PERSONAL SAFETY) COMPLIANCE
4.5.1 General
4.5.2 Applicable voltage scenarios
4.5.3 Methodology
4.5.4 Coincidence probability calculations
4.5.5 ALARP process
4.5.6 Documentation
SECTION 5 DESIGN PROCESS (NEW ZEALAND ONLY)
5.1 GENERAL
5.2 DESIGN PROCESS
5.3 LEVEL 1 (CONSERVATIVE) COMPLIANCE
5.3.1 Preliminary data gathering
5.3.2 First pass assessment
5.4 LEVEL 2/3 RISK BASED COMPLIANCE
5.4.1 Identifying zones of interest
5.4.2 Site visit
5.4.3 Data gathering
5.4.4 Impressed voltage calculations
5.4.5 Equipment integrity assessment
5.4.6 Voltage limit compliance
5.4.7 Risk assessment
5.4.8 ALARP process
5.4.9 Documentation
SECTION 6 ELECTRICAL HAZARD CONTROL
6.1 GENERAL
6.2 LFI OR EPR HAZARD CONTROL
6.2.1 Methods that reduce the pipeline voltage
6.2.2 Methods that reduce touch and step voltage
6.2.3 Methods that reduce risk level
6.3 CAPACITIVE COUPLING CONTROL
6.3.1 General
6.3.2 Methods that reduce the pipeline voltage
6.3.3 Methods that reduce risk level
6.4 LIGHTNING CONTROL
6.5 CONTROL OF OTHER HAZARDS
6.5.1 Open-circuited neutrals
6.5.2 D.C. traction systems
6.6 HAZARD CONTROL FOR PERSONNEL DURING OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
6.6.1 Assessment of risk sources
6.6.2 Personal protective equipment
6.6.3 Other protective equipment
SECTION 7 COMMISSIONING AND MAINTENANCE OF PIPELINE EARTHING SYSTEMS
7.1 GENERAL
7.2 INITIAL COMMISSIONING AND TESTING
7.2.1 Physical inspection
7.2.2 Electrical performance
7.3 RECORDS
7.4 ELECTRICAL HAZARD INTEGRITY MANAGEMENT PLAN
APPENDIX A - LIST OF REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
APPENDIX B - LOAD CURRENT LFI EXAMPLE CALCULATION
B1 GENERAL
B2 LFI CALCULATION-NO OVERHEAD EARTHWIRES
B3 LFI CALCULATION-WITH OVERHEAD EARTHWIRES
B4 LFI CALCULATION-UNDERGROUND CABLE WITH NEUTRAL SCREEN
APPENDIX C - FAULT CURRENT LFI EXAMPLE CALCULATION
C1 GENERAL
C2 CALCULATIONS USING ρ = 100 Ω.m
C3 MUTUAL IMPEDANCE WHEN ρ VARIES FROM 100 Ω.m
C4 MAXIMUM TOTAL COUPLING
C5 PARAMETERS REQUIRED TO ASSESS POSSIBLE HAZARDS
C5.1 High voltage power line
C5.2 Metallic pipelines
APPENDIX D - EFFECTS OF AN A.C. TRACTION SYSTEM ON A NEARBY PIPELINE
D1 GENERAL
D2 TYPES OF A.C. TRACTION SYSTEM
D3 ASSESSMENT OF THE INDUCTION LEVEL INTO AN ADJACENT PIPELINE
D3.1 General
D3.2 Simple 25 kV system with overhead earth wire
D3.3 (25 kV) booster transformer (BT) system
D3.4 (25 kV – 0 – 25 kV) autotransformer (AT) system
APPENDIX E - LFI CALCULATION
E1 INTRODUCTION
E2 DETERMINATION OF EARTH ELECTRODE RESISTANCE
E3 OTHER OPTIONS
E4 ALTERNATIVE METHOD TO DERIVE LFI FAULT VOLTAGE
APPENDIX F - SAMPLE CALCULATION OF CAPACITIVELY COUPLED CURRENT
F1 INTRODUCTION
F2 GENERAL APPROXIMATION
F3 SINGLE PIPE LENGTH
F4 SUMMARY
APPENDIX G - EPR NEAR A HIGH VOLTAGE INSTALLATION
G1 INTRODUCTION
G2 DISTRIBUTION OF FAULT CURRENTS
G3 CALCULATION OF RESISTANCE OF EARTH SYSTEM
G3.1 General
G3.2 Primary electrodes
G4 DETERMINING SURFACE VOLTAGE CONTOURS
G4.1 General
G4.2 Surface voltage gradients
G4.3 Limits for the application of simplified calculations
G5 EXAMPLE-EARTH POTENTIAL RISE SURROUNDING A 275 KV TRANSMISSION TOWER
G5.1 Parameters
G5.2 Resistance of tower footing
G5.3 Earth fault current
G5.4 Earth potential rise
G5.5 Surface voltage contours
G6 EARTH POTENTIAL OF SUBSTATION SITE FEED BY CABLE OR OVERHEAD LINE WITH OVERHEAD EARTH WIRE
G6.1 General
G6.2 Calculation of GMR and GMD
G6.3 Worked example-Substation fed by a cable
G6.4 Worked example-Overhead feed substation with overhead earth wire return
APPENDIX H - MECHANICAL HANDLING OF PIPE LENGTHS
H1 MECHANICAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT
H2 HANDLING WELL-COATED PIPE IN THE VICINITY OF HIGH VOLTAGE POWER LINES
H3 HANDLING LONG LENGTHS OF PIPE STRINGS
H4 STORAGE OF PIPE BELOW HIGH VOLTAGE POWER LINES
H5 TRANSPORT BY RAIL
H6 PERSONNEL PROTECTION
H6.1 Protective clothing
H6.2 Protective equipment
H6.3 Measuring tapes
APPENDIX I - POTENTIAL ISSUES BETWEEN PIPELINE PROTECTIVE EARTHING EQUIPMENT AND CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS
I1 GENERAL
I2 INTERACTION BETWEEN CP AND LFI AND EPR CONTROL
I3 LIGHTNING PROTECTION (LP)
I4 POLARIZATION CELLS
I5 SURGE DIVERTERS
I6 SHIELDING OF CATHODIC PROTECTION
APPENDIX J - ELECTRICAL HAZARD CONTROL AND RISK TREATMENT
J1 GENERAL
J2 PROTECTIVE EARTHING
J2.1 Introduction
J2.2 Purpose of protective earthing
J2.3 Safety for personnel and public
J2.4 Design
J3 PROTECTIVE MEASURES
J4 PERSONNEL SAFETY DURING PIPELINE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
J4.1 Assessment of risk sources
J4.2 Personal protective equipment
J4.3 Other protective equipment
J5 WORK IN PROXIMITY TO EXPOSED CONDUCTORS
J5.1 General
J5.2 Approach limits to electrical conductors
J5.3 Cranes and mobile plant
APPENDIX K - CONTACT SCENARIOS
K1 GENERAL
K2 CONTACT SCENARIOS (DURATION AND FREQUENCY, SERIES IMPEDANCE)
K3 PUBLIC CONTACT
K4 OPERATORS
K5 CONSTRUCTION
K6 MAINTENANCE
APPENDIX L - SOIL RESISTIVITY GUIDELINES
L1 SOIL RESISTIVITY
L2 TESTING AND MEASUREMENT
L2.1 Wenner test
L2.2 Test results
L2.3 Sources of errors
L2.4 Equipment and instrumentation
APPENDIX M - ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY INFRASTRUCTURE
M1 POWER STATIONS
M2 SUBSTATIONS
M3 UNDERGROUND POWER LINES (CABLES)
M4 OVERHEAD POWER LINES (LINES)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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References
- AS/NZS 2832.1:1998
Cathodic protection of metals - Pipes and cables
AS/NZS 60479.1:2010Effects of current on human beings and livestock - General aspects
Related Information
- 29.020 Electrical engineering in general
Similar Standards
- AS/NZS 3000:2018
Electrical installations - Known as the Australian/New Zealand Wiring Rules - AS/NZS 3000:2018 A1
Electrical installations (known as the Australian/New Zealand Wiring Rules): Amendment 1 - AS/NZS 3000:2018 A2
Electrical Installations (known as the Australian/New Zealand Wiring Rules)
- AS/NZS 3000:2018 A3
Electrical installations (known as the Australian/New Zealand Wiring Rules)
AS/NZS 4853:2012 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ON METALLIC PIPELINES
PREFACE
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE
1.2 EXCLUSIONS
1.3 RETROSPECTIVE APPLICATION
1.4 REFERENCE DOCUMENT
1.5 DEFINITIONS
1.5.1 Accessible
1.5.2 Admittance (Y)
1.5.3 Anode
1.5.4 Approved
1.5.5 Appurtenance
1.5.6 As low as reasonably practicable (ALARP)
1.5.7 Authorized person
1.5.8 Cathodic protection (CP)
1.5.9 Cathodic protection unit
1.5.10 Clearing time (Primary)
1.5.11 Competent person
1.5.12 Counterpoise
1.5.13 Coupling factor (see Figure 1.5)
1.5.14 Diameter
1.5.15 Drainage bond
1.5.16 Earth (noun)
1.5.17 Earth (verb)
1.5.18 Earth fault current
1.5.19 Earth potential rise (EPR)
1.5.20 Electrode
1.5.21 Electrolyte
1.5.22 Equipotential mats
1.5.23 Exposure zone
1.5.24 Fluid
1.5.25 Hazard
1.5.26 Holiday
1.5.27 Impedance (Z)
1.5.28 Impressed current
1.5.29 Insulating joint
1.5.30 Low frequency induction (LFI)
1.5.31 Licensee
1.5.32 May
1.5.33 Owner
1.5.34 Polarization cell
1.5.35 Prospective earth fault level
1.5.36 Prospective step voltage
1.5.37 Prospective touch voltage
1.5.38 Protection measures (procedural)
1.5.39 Protection measures (physical)
1.5.40 Regulatory authority
1.5.41 Risk
1.5.42 Shall
1.5.43 Shielding factor (refer to Figure 1.5)
1.5.44 Should
1.5.45 Step voltage (effective)
1.5.46 Structure
1.5.47 Test point
1.5.48 Touch voltage (effective)
1.6 SYMBOLS AND UNITS
1.7 ABBREVIATIONS
SECTION 2 SAFETY
2.1 GENERAL
2.2 RISK CONTEXT
2.3 ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
2.4 RISK ASSESSMENT
2.5 EFFECTIVENESS OF RISK TREATMENTS
2.6 CONSTRUCTION SAFETY
SECTION 3 ELECTRICAL HAZARD SOURCES
3.1 GENERAL
3.2 EARTH POTENTIAL RISE (EPR)
3.3 LOW FREQUENCY INDUCTION (LFI)
3.3.1 General
3.3.2 LFI mechanisms
3.4 CAPACITIVE COUPLING
3.5 EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING
3.5.1 The electrical nature of lightning
3.5.2 The electrical properties of coated pipelines
3.5.3 The combination of lightning current with the pipeline
3.6 OTHER HAZARDS
3.6.1 Open-circuited neutrals
3.6.2 D.C. traction systems
3.6.3 A.C. traction systems
3.6.4 Storage and handling of pipe lengths in proximity to powerlines
3.7 INTERACTION BETWEEN PIPELINE PROTECTIVE EARTHING SYSTEMS AND CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS
3.8 PIPELINE CORROSION RESULTING FROM STEADY STATE LFI
3.9 PIPE WALL FUSION
3.10 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
3.11 CONSTANT POTENTIAL CATHODIC PROTECTION UNITS
3.12 PIPELINE EARTHING TO POWERLINE EARTHS
3.13 PLASTIC PIPELINES CONTAINING CONDUCTIVE LIQUIDS
SECTION 4 DESIGN PROCESS (AUSTRALIA ONLY)
4.1 GENERAL
4.2 DESIGN PROCESS
4.3 LEVEL 1 (CONSERVATIVE) COMPLIANCE
4.3.1 Preliminary data gathering
4.3.2 First pass assessment
4.4 LEVEL 2 VOLTAGE LIMIT COMPLIANCE
4.4.1 Identifying zones of interest
4.4.2 Site visit
4.4.3 Data gathering
4.4.4 Impressed voltage calculations
4.4.5 Equipment integrity assessment
4.4.6 Voltage limit compliance
4.5 LEVEL 3 RISK BASED (PERSONAL SAFETY) COMPLIANCE
4.5.1 General
4.5.2 Applicable voltage scenarios
4.5.3 Methodology
4.5.4 Coincidence probability calculations
4.5.5 ALARP process
4.5.6 Documentation
SECTION 5 DESIGN PROCESS (NEW ZEALAND ONLY)
5.1 GENERAL
5.2 DESIGN PROCESS
5.3 LEVEL 1 (CONSERVATIVE) COMPLIANCE
5.3.1 Preliminary data gathering
5.3.2 First pass assessment
5.4 LEVEL 2/3 RISK BASED COMPLIANCE
5.4.1 Identifying zones of interest
5.4.2 Site visit
5.4.3 Data gathering
5.4.4 Impressed voltage calculations
5.4.5 Equipment integrity assessment
5.4.6 Voltage limit compliance
5.4.7 Risk assessment
5.4.8 ALARP process
5.4.9 Documentation
SECTION 6 ELECTRICAL HAZARD CONTROL
6.1 GENERAL
6.2 LFI OR EPR HAZARD CONTROL
6.2.1 Methods that reduce the pipeline voltage
6.2.2 Methods that reduce touch and step voltage
6.2.3 Methods that reduce risk level
6.3 CAPACITIVE COUPLING CONTROL
6.3.1 General
6.3.2 Methods that reduce the pipeline voltage
6.3.3 Methods that reduce risk level
6.4 LIGHTNING CONTROL
6.5 CONTROL OF OTHER HAZARDS
6.5.1 Open-circuited neutrals
6.5.2 D.C. traction systems
6.6 HAZARD CONTROL FOR PERSONNEL DURING OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
6.6.1 Assessment of risk sources
6.6.2 Personal protective equipment
6.6.3 Other protective equipment
SECTION 7 COMMISSIONING AND MAINTENANCE OF PIPELINE EARTHING SYSTEMS
7.1 GENERAL
7.2 INITIAL COMMISSIONING AND TESTING
7.2.1 Physical inspection
7.2.2 Electrical performance
7.3 RECORDS
7.4 ELECTRICAL HAZARD INTEGRITY MANAGEMENT PLAN
APPENDIX A - LIST OF REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
APPENDIX B - LOAD CURRENT LFI EXAMPLE CALCULATION
B1 GENERAL
B2 LFI CALCULATION-NO OVERHEAD EARTHWIRES
B3 LFI CALCULATION-WITH OVERHEAD EARTHWIRES
B4 LFI CALCULATION-UNDERGROUND CABLE WITH NEUTRAL SCREEN
APPENDIX C - FAULT CURRENT LFI EXAMPLE CALCULATION
C1 GENERAL
C2 CALCULATIONS USING ρ = 100 Ω.m
C3 MUTUAL IMPEDANCE WHEN ρ VARIES FROM 100 Ω.m
C4 MAXIMUM TOTAL COUPLING
C5 PARAMETERS REQUIRED TO ASSESS POSSIBLE HAZARDS
C5.1 High voltage power line
C5.2 Metallic pipelines
APPENDIX D - EFFECTS OF AN A.C. TRACTION SYSTEM ON A NEARBY PIPELINE
D1 GENERAL
D2 TYPES OF A.C. TRACTION SYSTEM
D3 ASSESSMENT OF THE INDUCTION LEVEL INTO AN ADJACENT PIPELINE
D3.1 General
D3.2 Simple 25 kV system with overhead earth wire
D3.3 (25 kV) booster transformer (BT) system
D3.4 (25 kV – 0 – 25 kV) autotransformer (AT) system
APPENDIX E - LFI CALCULATION
E1 INTRODUCTION
E2 DETERMINATION OF EARTH ELECTRODE RESISTANCE
E3 OTHER OPTIONS
E4 ALTERNATIVE METHOD TO DERIVE LFI FAULT VOLTAGE
APPENDIX F - SAMPLE CALCULATION OF CAPACITIVELY COUPLED CURRENT
F1 INTRODUCTION
F2 GENERAL APPROXIMATION
F3 SINGLE PIPE LENGTH
F4 SUMMARY
APPENDIX G - EPR NEAR A HIGH VOLTAGE INSTALLATION
G1 INTRODUCTION
G2 DISTRIBUTION OF FAULT CURRENTS
G3 CALCULATION OF RESISTANCE OF EARTH SYSTEM
G3.1 General
G3.2 Primary electrodes
G4 DETERMINING SURFACE VOLTAGE CONTOURS
G4.1 General
G4.2 Surface voltage gradients
G4.3 Limits for the application of simplified calculations
G5 EXAMPLE-EARTH POTENTIAL RISE SURROUNDING A 275 KV TRANSMISSION TOWER
G5.1 Parameters
G5.2 Resistance of tower footing
G5.3 Earth fault current
G5.4 Earth potential rise
G5.5 Surface voltage contours
G6 EARTH POTENTIAL OF SUBSTATION SITE FEED BY CABLE OR OVERHEAD LINE WITH OVERHEAD EARTH WIRE
G6.1 General
G6.2 Calculation of GMR and GMD
G6.3 Worked example-Substation fed by a cable
G6.4 Worked example-Overhead feed substation with overhead earth wire return
APPENDIX H - MECHANICAL HANDLING OF PIPE LENGTHS
H1 MECHANICAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT
H2 HANDLING WELL-COATED PIPE IN THE VICINITY OF HIGH VOLTAGE POWER LINES
H3 HANDLING LONG LENGTHS OF PIPE STRINGS
H4 STORAGE OF PIPE BELOW HIGH VOLTAGE POWER LINES
H5 TRANSPORT BY RAIL
H6 PERSONNEL PROTECTION
H6.1 Protective clothing
H6.2 Protective equipment
H6.3 Measuring tapes
APPENDIX I - POTENTIAL ISSUES BETWEEN PIPELINE PROTECTIVE EARTHING EQUIPMENT AND CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS
I1 GENERAL
I2 INTERACTION BETWEEN CP AND LFI AND EPR CONTROL
I3 LIGHTNING PROTECTION (LP)
I4 POLARIZATION CELLS
I5 SURGE DIVERTERS
I6 SHIELDING OF CATHODIC PROTECTION
APPENDIX J - ELECTRICAL HAZARD CONTROL AND RISK TREATMENT
J1 GENERAL
J2 PROTECTIVE EARTHING
J2.1 Introduction
J2.2 Purpose of protective earthing
J2.3 Safety for personnel and public
J2.4 Design
J3 PROTECTIVE MEASURES
J4 PERSONNEL SAFETY DURING PIPELINE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
J4.1 Assessment of risk sources
J4.2 Personal protective equipment
J4.3 Other protective equipment
J5 WORK IN PROXIMITY TO EXPOSED CONDUCTORS
J5.1 General
J5.2 Approach limits to electrical conductors
J5.3 Cranes and mobile plant
APPENDIX K - CONTACT SCENARIOS
K1 GENERAL
K2 CONTACT SCENARIOS (DURATION AND FREQUENCY, SERIES IMPEDANCE)
K3 PUBLIC CONTACT
K4 OPERATORS
K5 CONSTRUCTION
K6 MAINTENANCE
APPENDIX L - SOIL RESISTIVITY GUIDELINES
L1 SOIL RESISTIVITY
L2 TESTING AND MEASUREMENT
L2.1 Wenner test
L2.2 Test results
L2.3 Sources of errors
L2.4 Equipment and instrumentation
APPENDIX M - ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY INFRASTRUCTURE
M1 POWER STATIONS
M2 SUBSTATIONS
M3 UNDERGROUND POWER LINES (CABLES)
M4 OVERHEAD POWER LINES (LINES)
BIBLIOGRAPHY