ISO/IEC 14492:2019
Information technology — Lossy/lossless coding of bi-level images
This Recommendation | International Standard defines methods for coding bi-level images and sets of images (documents consisting of multiple pages). It is particularly suitable for bi-level images consisting of text and dithered (halftone) data.
The methods defined permit lossless (bit-preserving) coding, lossy coding, and progressive coding. In progressive coding, the first image is lossy; subsequent images may be lossy or lossless.
This Recommendation | International Standard also defines file formats to enclose the coded bi-level image data.
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S075396e
C075396eForeword
FOREWORD
C075396e
0 Introduction
0.1 Interpretation and use of the requirements
0.1.1 Subject matter for JBIG2 coding
0.1.2 Relationship between segments and documents
0.1.3 Structure and use of segments
0.1.4 Internal representations
0.1.5 Decoding results
0.1.6 Decoding procedures
0.2 Lossy coding
0.2.1 Symbol coding
0.2.2 Generic coding
0.2.3 Halftone coding
0.2.4 Consequences of inadequate segmentation
1 Scope
2 Normative references
3 Definitions
4 Symbols and abbreviations
4.1 Abbreviations
4.2 Symbol definitions
4.3 Operator definitions
5 Conventions
5.1 Typographic conventions
5.2 Binary notation
5.3 Hexadecimal notation
5.4 Integer value syntax
5.4.1 Bit packing
5.4.2 Multi-byte values
5.4.3 Bit numbering
5.4.4 Signedness
5.5 Array notation and conventions
5.6 Image and bitmap conventions
6 Decoding Procedures
6.1 Introduction to decoding procedures
6.2 Generic region decoding procedure
6.2.1 General description
6.2.2 Input parameters
6.2.3 Return value
6.2.4 Variables used in decoding
6.2.5 Decoding using a template and arithmetic coding
6.2.5.1 General description
6.2.5.2 Coding order and edge conventions
6.2.5.3 Fixed templates
6.2.5.4 Adaptive template pixels
6.2.5.5 Typical prediction for generic direct coding (TPGD)
6.2.5.6 Skipped pixels
6.2.6 Decoding using MMR coding
6.2.7 Colour extension of generic region segment
6.3 Generic Refinement Region Decoding Procedure
6.3.1 General description
6.3.2 Input parameters
6.3.3 Return value
6.3.4 Variables used in decoding
6.3.5 Decoding using a template and arithmetic coding
6.3.5.1 General description
6.3.5.2 Coding order and edge conventions
6.3.5.3 Fixed templates and adaptive templates
6.3.5.4 Adaptive template pixels
6.3.5.5 Typical prediction for generic refinement (TPGR)
6.3.5.6 Decoding the refinement bitmap
6.4 Text Region Decoding Procedure
6.4.1 General description
6.4.2 Input parameters
6.4.3 Return value
6.4.4 Variables used in decoding
6.4.5 Decoding the text region
6.4.6 Strip delta T
6.4.7 First symbol instance S coordinate
6.4.8 Subsequent symbol instance S coordinate
6.4.10 Symbol instance symbol ID
6.4.11 Symbol instance bitmap
6.4.11.1 Symbol instance refinement delta width
6.4.11.2 Symbol instance refinement delta height
6.4.11.3 Symbol instance refinement X offset
6.4.11.4 Symbol instance refinement Y offset
6.4.11.5 Symbol instance refinement bitmap data size
6.4.12 Colour section
6.4.12.1 Colour section length
6.4.12.2 Colour palette IDs
6.5 Symbol Dictionary Decoding Procedure
6.5.1 General description
6.5.2 Input parameters
6.5.5 Decoding the symbol dictionary
6.5.6 Height class delta height
6.5.7 Delta width
6.5.8 Symbol bitmap
6.5.8.1 Direct-coded symbol bitmap
6.5.8.2 Refinement/aggregate-coded symbol bitmap
6.5.8.2.1 Number of symbol instances in aggregation
6.5.8.2.2 Decoding a bitmap when REFAGGNINST 1
6.5.8.2.3 Setting SBSYMCODES and SBSYMCODELEN
6.5.8.2.4 Setting SBSYMS
6.5.9 Height class collective bitmap
6.5.10 Exported symbols
6.6 Halftone Region Decoding Procedure
6.6.1 General description
6.6.2 Input parameters
6.6.3 Return value
6.6.4 Variables used in decoding
6.6.5 Decoding the halftone region
6.6.5.1 Computing HSKIP
6.6.5.2 Rendering the patterns
6.7 Pattern Dictionary Decoding Procedure
6.7.1 General description
6.7.2 Input parameters
6.7.3 Return value
6.7.4 Variables used in decoding
6.7.5 Decoding the pattern dictionary
6.8 Colour palette decoding procedure
6.8.1 General description
6.8.2 Input parameters
6.8.3 Return value
6.8.4 Decoding the colour palette
6.8.5 Default colour set
7 Control Decoding Procedure
7.1 General description
7.2 Segment header syntax
7.2.1 Segment header fields
7.2.2 Segment number
7.2.3 Segment header flags
7.2.4 Referred-to segment count and retention flags
7.2.5 Referred-to segment numbers
7.2.6 Segment page association
7.2.7 Segment data length
7.2.8 Segment header example
7.3 Segment t ypes
7.3.1 Rules for segment references
7.3.2 Rules for page associations
7.4 Segment syntaxes
7.4.1 Region segment information field
7.4.1.1 Region segment bitmap width
7.4.1.2 Region segment bitmap height
7.4.1.3 Region segment bitmap X location
7.4.1.4 Region segment bitmap Y location
7.4.1.5 Region segment flags
7.4.2 Symbol dictionary segment syntax
7.4.2.1 Symbol dictionary segment data header
7.4.2.1.1 Symbol dictionary flags
7.4.2.1.2 Symbol dictionary AT flags
7.4.2.1.3 Symbol dictionary refinement AT flags
7.4.2.1.4 Number of exported symbols (SDNUMEXSYMS)
7.4.2.1.5 Number of new symbols (SDNUMNEWSYMS)
7.4.2.1.6 Symbol dictionary segment Huffman table selection
7.4.2.2 Decoding a symbol dictionary segment
7.4.3 Text region segment syntax
7.4.3.1 Text region segment data header
7.4.3.1.1 Text region segment flags
7.4.3.1.2 Text region segment Huffman flags
7.4.3.1.3 Text region refinement AT flags
7.4.3.1.4 Number of symbol instances (SBNUMINSTANCES)
7.4.3.1.5 Text region segment symbol ID Huffman decoding table
7.4.3.1.6 Text region segment Huffman table selection
7.4.3.1.7 Symbol ID Huffman table decoding
7.4.3.2 Decoding a text region segment
7.4.4 Pattern dictionary segment syntax
7.4.4.1 Pattern dictionary segment data header
7.4.4.1.1 Pattern dictionary flags
7.4.4.1.2 Width of the patterns in the pattern dictionary (HDPW)
7.4.4.1.3 Height of the patterns in the pattern dictionary (HDPH)
7.4.4.1.4 Largest gray-scale value (GRAYMAX)
7.4.4.2 Decoding a pattern dictionary segment
7.4.5 Halftone region segment syntax
7.4.5.1 Halftone region segment data header
7.4.5.1.1 Halftone region segment flags
7.4.5.1.2 Halftone grid position and size
7.4.5.1.2.1 Width of the gray-scale image (HGW)
7.4.5.1.2.2 Height of the gray-scale image (HGH)
7.4.5.1.2.3 Horizontal offset of the grid (HGX)
7.4.5.1.2.4 Vertical offset of the grid (HGY)
7.4.5.1.3 Halftone grid vector
7.4.5.1.3.1 Horizontal coordinate of the halftone grid vector (HRX)
7.4.5.1.3.2 Vertical coordinate of the halftone grid vector (HRY)
7.4.5.2 Decoding a halftone region segment
7.4.6 Generic region segment syntax
7.4.6.1 Generic region segment data header
7.4.6.2 Generic region segment flags
7.4.6.3 Generic region segment AT flags
7.4.6.4 Decoding a generic region segment
7.4.7 Generic refinement region syntax
7.4.7.1 Generic refinement region segment data header
7.4.7.2 Generic refinement region segment flags
7.4.7.3 Generic refinement region segment AT flags
7.4.7.4 Reference bitmap selection
7.4.7.5 Decoding a generic refinement region segment
7.4.8 Page information segment syntax
7.4.8.1 Page bitmap width
7.4.8.2 Page bitmap height
7.4.8.3 Page X resolution
7.4.8.4 Page Y resolution
7.4.8.5 Page segment flags
7.4.8.6 Page striping information
7.4.9 End of page segment syntax
7.4.10 End of stripe segment syntax
7.4.11 End of file segment syntax
7.4.12 Profiles segment syntax
7.4.13 Code table segment syntax
7.4.14 Extension segment syntax
7.4.15 Defined extension types
7.4.15.1 Single-byte coded comment
7.4.15.2 Multi-byte coded comment
7.4.16 Colour palette segment syntax
7.4.16.1 Colour palette segment data header
7.4.16.1.1 Colour palette flags
7.4.16.1.2 Number of components (CPNCOMP)
7.4.16.1.3 Component length (CPCOMPLEN)
7.4.16.1.4 Number of values (CPNVALS)
7.4.16.2 Decoding a colour palette segment
8 Page Make-up
8.1 Decoder model
8.2 Page image composition
9 Encoding procedures (informative)
10 Control encoding procedures (informative)
11 Page break-up (informative)
11.1 Page break-up architecture
11.2 Page image decomposition
11.2.1 Capture (rasterize)
11.2.2 Filter
11.2.3 Orient (de-skew)
11.2.4 Identify
11.2.5 Extract
11.2.6 Screen
11.2.7 Align (register)
11.2.8 Match
11.2.9 Post-match
11.2.10 Dictionary (optimize)
11.2.11 Refine
11.3 Multi-page document composition
Annex A Arithmetic integer decoding procedure
A.1 General description
A.2 Procedure for decoding values (except IAID)
A.3 The IAID decoding procedure
Annex B Huffman table decoding procedure
B.1 General description
B.2 Code table structure
B.2.1 Code table flags
B.2.2 Code table lowest value
B.2.3 Code table highest value
B.3 Assigning the prefix codes
B.4 Using a Huffman table
B.5 Standard Huffman tables
Annex C Gray-scale image decoding procedure
C.1 General description
C.2 Input parameters
C.3 Return value
C.4 Variables used in decoding
C.5 Decoding the gray-scale image
Annex D File formats
D.1 Sequential organization
D.2 Random-access organization
D.3 Embedded organization
D.4 File header syntax
D.4.1 ID string
D.4.2 File header flags
D.4.3 Number of pages
Annex E Arithmetic coding
E.1 Binary encoding
E.1.1 Recursive interval subdivision
E.1.2 Coding conventions and approximations
E.2 Description of the arithmetic encoder
E.2.1 Encoder code register conventions
E.2.2 Encoding a decision (ENCODE)
E.2.3 Encoding a 1 or 0 (CODE1 and CODE0)
E.2.4 Encoding an MPS or LPS (CODEMPS and CODELPS)
E.2.5 Probability estimation
E.2.6 Renormalization in the encoder (RENORME)
E.2.7 Compressed data output (BYTEOUT)
E.2.8 Initialization of the encoder (INITENC)
E.2.9 Termination of encoding (FLUSH)
E.2.10 Minimization of the compressed data
E.3 Arithmetic decoding procedure
E.3.1 Decoder code register conventions
E.3.2 Decoding a decision (DECODE)
E.3.3 Renormalization in the decoder (RENORMD)
E.3.4 Compressed data input (BYTEIN)
E.3.5 Initialization of the decoder (INITDEC)
E.3.6 Resynchronization of the decoder
E.3.7 Resetting arithmetic coding statistics
E.3.8 Saving arithmetic coding statistics
Annex F Profiles
Annex G Arithmetic decoding procedure (software conventions)
Annex H Datastream example and test sequence
H.1 Datastream example
H.2 Test sequence for arithmetic coder
Annex I Patents
I.1 List of patents
I.2 Contact addresses for patent information
Annex J Compliant example encoding methods
J.1 List of JBIG2 encoding components and corresponding algorithms
J.2 Method references
Annex K Electronic conformance data and sample software
K.1 Attached electronic data (informative)
K.1.1 General
K.1.2 Contents of sample software
K.1.3 Conformance test data
K.2 Working environments of the released sample software (informative)
K.3 How to use the sample software (informative)
K.3.1 jbig2
K.3.1.1 General
K.3.1.2 Ini file format example
K.3.1.3 Symbol dictionary file
K.3.2 Z1
K.3.3 imgcomp
K.3.4 JBIG22.bat in test directory (only when using Windows)
K.3.5 makefile in root directory (only when gcc)
K.3.6 makefile in test directory (only when gcc)
Bibliography
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S075396e
C075396eForeword
FOREWORD
C075396e
0 Introduction
0.1 Interpretation and use of the requirements
0.1.1 Subject matter for JBIG2 coding
0.1.2 Relationship between segments and documents
0.1.3 Structure and use of segments
0.1.4 Internal representations
0.1.5 Decoding results
0.1.6 Decoding procedures
0.2 Lossy coding
0.2.1 Symbol coding
0.2.2 Generic coding
0.2.3 Halftone coding
0.2.4 Consequences of inadequate segmentation
1 Scope
2 Normative references
3 Definitions
4 Symbols and abbreviations
4.1 Abbreviations
4.2 Symbol definitions
4.3 Operator definitions
5 Conventions
5.1 Typographic conventions
5.2 Binary notation
5.3 Hexadecimal notation
5.4 Integer value syntax
5.4.1 Bit packing
5.4.2 Multi-byte values
5.4.3 Bit numbering
5.4.4 Signedness
5.5 Array notation and conventions
5.6 Image and bitmap conventions
6 Decoding Procedures
6.1 Introduction to decoding procedures
6.2 Generic region decoding procedure
6.2.1 General description
6.2.2 Input parameters
6.2.3 Return value
6.2.4 Variables used in decoding
6.2.5 Decoding using a template and arithmetic coding
6.2.5.1 General description
6.2.5.2 Coding order and edge conventions
6.2.5.3 Fixed templates
6.2.5.4 Adaptive template pixels
6.2.5.5 Typical prediction for generic direct coding (TPGD)
6.2.5.6 Skipped pixels
6.2.6 Decoding using MMR coding
6.2.7 Colour extension of generic region segment
6.3 Generic Refinement Region Decoding Procedure
6.3.1 General description
6.3.2 Input parameters
6.3.3 Return value
6.3.4 Variables used in decoding
6.3.5 Decoding using a template and arithmetic coding
6.3.5.1 General description
6.3.5.2 Coding order and edge conventions
6.3.5.3 Fixed templates and adaptive templates
6.3.5.4 Adaptive template pixels
6.3.5.5 Typical prediction for generic refinement (TPGR)
6.3.5.6 Decoding the refinement bitmap
6.4 Text Region Decoding Procedure
6.4.1 General description
6.4.2 Input parameters
6.4.3 Return value
6.4.4 Variables used in decoding
6.4.5 Decoding the text region
6.4.6 Strip delta T
6.4.7 First symbol instance S coordinate
6.4.8 Subsequent symbol instance S coordinate
6.4.10 Symbol instance symbol ID
6.4.11 Symbol instance bitmap
6.4.11.1 Symbol instance refinement delta width
6.4.11.2 Symbol instance refinement delta height
6.4.11.3 Symbol instance refinement X offset
6.4.11.4 Symbol instance refinement Y offset
6.4.11.5 Symbol instance refinement bitmap data size
6.4.12 Colour section
6.4.12.1 Colour section length
6.4.12.2 Colour palette IDs
6.5 Symbol Dictionary Decoding Procedure
6.5.1 General description
6.5.2 Input parameters
6.5.5 Decoding the symbol dictionary
6.5.6 Height class delta height
6.5.7 Delta width
6.5.8 Symbol bitmap
6.5.8.1 Direct-coded symbol bitmap
6.5.8.2 Refinement/aggregate-coded symbol bitmap
6.5.8.2.1 Number of symbol instances in aggregation
6.5.8.2.2 Decoding a bitmap when REFAGGNINST 1
6.5.8.2.3 Setting SBSYMCODES and SBSYMCODELEN
6.5.8.2.4 Setting SBSYMS
6.5.9 Height class collective bitmap
6.5.10 Exported symbols
6.6 Halftone Region Decoding Procedure
6.6.1 General description
6.6.2 Input parameters
6.6.3 Return value
6.6.4 Variables used in decoding
6.6.5 Decoding the halftone region
6.6.5.1 Computing HSKIP
6.6.5.2 Rendering the patterns
6.7 Pattern Dictionary Decoding Procedure
6.7.1 General description
6.7.2 Input parameters
6.7.3 Return value
6.7.4 Variables used in decoding
6.7.5 Decoding the pattern dictionary
6.8 Colour palette decoding procedure
6.8.1 General description
6.8.2 Input parameters
6.8.3 Return value
6.8.4 Decoding the colour palette
6.8.5 Default colour set
7 Control Decoding Procedure
7.1 General description
7.2 Segment header syntax
7.2.1 Segment header fields
7.2.2 Segment number
7.2.3 Segment header flags
7.2.4 Referred-to segment count and retention flags
7.2.5 Referred-to segment numbers
7.2.6 Segment page association
7.2.7 Segment data length
7.2.8 Segment header example
7.3 Segment t ypes
7.3.1 Rules for segment references
7.3.2 Rules for page associations
7.4 Segment syntaxes
7.4.1 Region segment information field
7.4.1.1 Region segment bitmap width
7.4.1.2 Region segment bitmap height
7.4.1.3 Region segment bitmap X location
7.4.1.4 Region segment bitmap Y location
7.4.1.5 Region segment flags
7.4.2 Symbol dictionary segment syntax
7.4.2.1 Symbol dictionary segment data header
7.4.2.1.1 Symbol dictionary flags
7.4.2.1.2 Symbol dictionary AT flags
7.4.2.1.3 Symbol dictionary refinement AT flags
7.4.2.1.4 Number of exported symbols (SDNUMEXSYMS)
7.4.2.1.5 Number of new symbols (SDNUMNEWSYMS)
7.4.2.1.6 Symbol dictionary segment Huffman table selection
7.4.2.2 Decoding a symbol dictionary segment
7.4.3 Text region segment syntax
7.4.3.1 Text region segment data header
7.4.3.1.1 Text region segment flags
7.4.3.1.2 Text region segment Huffman flags
7.4.3.1.3 Text region refinement AT flags
7.4.3.1.4 Number of symbol instances (SBNUMINSTANCES)
7.4.3.1.5 Text region segment symbol ID Huffman decoding table
7.4.3.1.6 Text region segment Huffman table selection
7.4.3.1.7 Symbol ID Huffman table decoding
7.4.3.2 Decoding a text region segment
7.4.4 Pattern dictionary segment syntax
7.4.4.1 Pattern dictionary segment data header
7.4.4.1.1 Pattern dictionary flags
7.4.4.1.2 Width of the patterns in the pattern dictionary (HDPW)
7.4.4.1.3 Height of the patterns in the pattern dictionary (HDPH)
7.4.4.1.4 Largest gray-scale value (GRAYMAX)
7.4.4.2 Decoding a pattern dictionary segment
7.4.5 Halftone region segment syntax
7.4.5.1 Halftone region segment data header
7.4.5.1.1 Halftone region segment flags
7.4.5.1.2 Halftone grid position and size
7.4.5.1.2.1 Width of the gray-scale image (HGW)
7.4.5.1.2.2 Height of the gray-scale image (HGH)
7.4.5.1.2.3 Horizontal offset of the grid (HGX)
7.4.5.1.2.4 Vertical offset of the grid (HGY)
7.4.5.1.3 Halftone grid vector
7.4.5.1.3.1 Horizontal coordinate of the halftone grid vector (HRX)
7.4.5.1.3.2 Vertical coordinate of the halftone grid vector (HRY)
7.4.5.2 Decoding a halftone region segment
7.4.6 Generic region segment syntax
7.4.6.1 Generic region segment data header
7.4.6.2 Generic region segment flags
7.4.6.3 Generic region segment AT flags
7.4.6.4 Decoding a generic region segment
7.4.7 Generic refinement region syntax
7.4.7.1 Generic refinement region segment data header
7.4.7.2 Generic refinement region segment flags
7.4.7.3 Generic refinement region segment AT flags
7.4.7.4 Reference bitmap selection
7.4.7.5 Decoding a generic refinement region segment
7.4.8 Page information segment syntax
7.4.8.1 Page bitmap width
7.4.8.2 Page bitmap height
7.4.8.3 Page X resolution
7.4.8.4 Page Y resolution
7.4.8.5 Page segment flags
7.4.8.6 Page striping information
7.4.9 End of page segment syntax
7.4.10 End of stripe segment syntax
7.4.11 End of file segment syntax
7.4.12 Profiles segment syntax
7.4.13 Code table segment syntax
7.4.14 Extension segment syntax
7.4.15 Defined extension types
7.4.15.1 Single-byte coded comment
7.4.15.2 Multi-byte coded comment
7.4.16 Colour palette segment syntax
7.4.16.1 Colour palette segment data header
7.4.16.1.1 Colour palette flags
7.4.16.1.2 Number of components (CPNCOMP)
7.4.16.1.3 Component length (CPCOMPLEN)
7.4.16.1.4 Number of values (CPNVALS)
7.4.16.2 Decoding a colour palette segment
8 Page Make-up
8.1 Decoder model
8.2 Page image composition
9 Encoding procedures (informative)
10 Control encoding procedures (informative)
11 Page break-up (informative)
11.1 Page break-up architecture
11.2 Page image decomposition
11.2.1 Capture (rasterize)
11.2.2 Filter
11.2.3 Orient (de-skew)
11.2.4 Identify
11.2.5 Extract
11.2.6 Screen
11.2.7 Align (register)
11.2.8 Match
11.2.9 Post-match
11.2.10 Dictionary (optimize)
11.2.11 Refine
11.3 Multi-page document composition
Annex A Arithmetic integer decoding procedure
A.1 General description
A.2 Procedure for decoding values (except IAID)
A.3 The IAID decoding procedure
Annex B Huffman table decoding procedure
B.1 General description
B.2 Code table structure
B.2.1 Code table flags
B.2.2 Code table lowest value
B.2.3 Code table highest value
B.3 Assigning the prefix codes
B.4 Using a Huffman table
B.5 Standard Huffman tables
Annex C Gray-scale image decoding procedure
C.1 General description
C.2 Input parameters
C.3 Return value
C.4 Variables used in decoding
C.5 Decoding the gray-scale image
Annex D File formats
D.1 Sequential organization
D.2 Random-access organization
D.3 Embedded organization
D.4 File header syntax
D.4.1 ID string
D.4.2 File header flags
D.4.3 Number of pages
Annex E Arithmetic coding
E.1 Binary encoding
E.1.1 Recursive interval subdivision
E.1.2 Coding conventions and approximations
E.2 Description of the arithmetic encoder
E.2.1 Encoder code register conventions
E.2.2 Encoding a decision (ENCODE)
E.2.3 Encoding a 1 or 0 (CODE1 and CODE0)
E.2.4 Encoding an MPS or LPS (CODEMPS and CODELPS)
E.2.5 Probability estimation
E.2.6 Renormalization in the encoder (RENORME)
E.2.7 Compressed data output (BYTEOUT)
E.2.8 Initialization of the encoder (INITENC)
E.2.9 Termination of encoding (FLUSH)
E.2.10 Minimization of the compressed data
E.3 Arithmetic decoding procedure
E.3.1 Decoder code register conventions
E.3.2 Decoding a decision (DECODE)
E.3.3 Renormalization in the decoder (RENORMD)
E.3.4 Compressed data input (BYTEIN)
E.3.5 Initialization of the decoder (INITDEC)
E.3.6 Resynchronization of the decoder
E.3.7 Resetting arithmetic coding statistics
E.3.8 Saving arithmetic coding statistics
Annex F Profiles
Annex G Arithmetic decoding procedure (software conventions)
Annex H Datastream example and test sequence
H.1 Datastream example
H.2 Test sequence for arithmetic coder
Annex I Patents
I.1 List of patents
I.2 Contact addresses for patent information
Annex J Compliant example encoding methods
J.1 List of JBIG2 encoding components and corresponding algorithms
J.2 Method references
Annex K Electronic conformance data and sample software
K.1 Attached electronic data (informative)
K.1.1 General
K.1.2 Contents of sample software
K.1.3 Conformance test data
K.2 Working environments of the released sample software (informative)
K.3 How to use the sample software (informative)
K.3.1 jbig2
K.3.1.1 General
K.3.1.2 Ini file format example
K.3.1.3 Symbol dictionary file
K.3.2 Z1
K.3.3 imgcomp
K.3.4 JBIG22.bat in test directory (only when using Windows)
K.3.5 makefile in root directory (only when gcc)
K.3.6 makefile in test directory (only when gcc)
Bibliography
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